Libyan Journal of Ecological & Environmental Sciences and Technology
The Libyan Journal of Ecological and Environmental Sciences & Technology is the leading academic journal in its field. It publishes high quality, peer-reviewed original research articles, promoting significant advances in environmental sciences and technology. The journal aims to contribute significantly to the scientific community by addressing pressing environmental challenges and promoting sustainable practices. It is published by the Libyan Center for Studies and Research in Environmental Sciences and Technology.
Libyan Center for Studies and Research in Environmental Science and Technology
Efficiency of Colocynth Citrullus colocynthis Extracts in Controlling Mosquito Larvae Culex pipiens
This study evaluates the efficacy of Colocynth Citrullus colocynthis extracts (aqueous and alcoholic) in controlling the larvae of Culex pipiens, a common mosquito species and vector for various diseases. The impact of temperature (20-35°C) and salinity (2-8 mS/cm) on the toxicity and effectiveness of these extracts was investigated. The results showed that both extracts demonstrated increased toxicity with higher temperatures and salinity levels. The aqueous extract exhibited a higher toxicity compared to the alcoholic extract, with an LC50 of 0.10 mg/L at 35°C and 8 mS/cm salinity, while the alcoholic extract had an LC50 of 0.19 mg/L under the same conditions. The highest efficiency was observed with the aqueous extract at 35°C, where the degradation rate of larvae was significantly higher. These findings suggest that C. colocynthis extracts could serve as an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical pesticides in mosquito control, with significant potential for use in integrated pest management systems.
Citrullus colocynthis, mosquito larvae, extract, temperature, salinity, LC50, toxicity,
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Maximization of Operating Pressure and Activation Overpotential on Green Hydrogen Gas Purity of Alkaline Water Electrolysis Plants Simulated
The production of green hydrogen through the alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) can generate a sustainable source of energy and decarbonization solution that will be further improved by the use of renewable energy sources. The paper tends to investigate the way the operating factors (pressure, temperature and concentration of electrolytes (KOH and NaOH) Besides the applied current and voltage effect on the hydrogen production in addition to energy consumption and purity of produced gas. Experiments were conducted in the laboratory with a custom electrolysis cell that held stainless steel electrodes and a variety of concentrations of KOH and NaOH to demonstrate that the KOH provides better results to the NaOH because of the greater currents (up to 6 A) and voltages (up to 40 V) produced which lead to larger amounts of H2 (1 It was found that the optimum performance is achieved in a system at high temperatures of feed 90°C and medium pressure of approximately 12 bar where KOH concentrations of 20-25 wt% increase optimal system performance. Systems based on KOH had a maximum electrolyser efficiency of about 65 percent and the reference system had a maximum electrolyser efficiency of about 60 % and a power consumption of about 39.5 kW per kilogram of H2 generated. The results of the research which we reference point towards the fact that AWE design will be simplified in such a way that it could produce the production system which would be operational at the low levels of carbon emissions and generate the hydrogen which could be utilized in the petrochemical and renewable energy activity.
Green hydrogen, Alkaline water electrolysis, Operating pressure, Activation overpotential, Gas purity, Aspen Plus simulation, KOH electrolyte, Energy efficiency.
Natural Phytochemical Extracts Enhance Germination and Early Growth of Barley Hordeum vulgare
This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of selected local plant extracts as natural growth-promoting alternatives for the germination and seedling growth of Hordeum vulgare within the framework of sustainable agriculture. The treatments included aqueous extracts of leaves of Eriobotrya japonica (Dodonaea), leaves of Psidium guajava, and seeds of Phoenix dactylifera (Asebir date), applied at four concentrations (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) in addition to a control treatment. A laboratory germination experiment was conducted for 7 days. Qualitative phytochemical screening was performed, and germination percentage (%), radicle length (cm), and plumule length (cm) were measured. Data were statistically analyzed using ANOVA. The qualitative phytochemical analysis revealed that the Dodonaea extract contained flavonoids (12–15 mg QE/g) and phenolic compounds (10–12 mg GAE/g), in addition to terpenoids. The date seed extract showed high sugar content (18–20% dry weight), flavonoids (5–7 mg QE/g), and phenolic acids (3–5 mg GAE/g). Meanwhile, the guava leaf extract exhibited the presence of tannins (8–10 mg/g), phenolic compounds (6–8 mg GAE/g), and glycosides, indicating clear variation in chemical composition among the studied species. This variation was reflected in the biological response during germination. The Dodonaea extract achieved the highest germination rate (100%) at 25% and 100% concentrations starting from the third day, compared with the control (82%). It also recorded the greatest radicle length (4.5 cm) and plumule length (3.5 cm) on the seventh day at 25–50% concentrations. The date seed extract showed a stimulatory effect at 25–50% concentrations (up to 100% germination), whereas the germination rate decreased to 56% at 100%. In contrast, the guava leaf extract exhibited a clear inhibitory effect, with germination not exceeding 10% at 25–50% concentrations and reaching 33% at 100%, accompanied by a marked reduction in seedling length (<0.3 cm). The results confirm that both the type and concentration of plant extract are critical factors in stimulating or inhibiting germination. Dodonaea extract (25–50%) appears to be a promising natural growth promoter for barley within sustainable agricultural practices.
Development of an AI-Based Predictive Model for Flexible Pavement and Its Response to Climate Change Arid and Semi-Arid Regions
Climate change poses significant risks to pavement performance, especially in arid and semi-arid regions where extreme temperatures, variable rainfall, and heavy traffic loads accelerate deterioration. Traditional models, such as the Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) framework, often rely on U.S.-centric datasets and mechanistic-empirical assumptions that may not accurately represent local conditions in regions like Libya. To address this gap, we developed the Pavement Life Prediction Tool (PLPT), an AI-based decision-support system designed to classify flexible pavement failure risk levels (low, medium, high) using climatic and structural variables, including road age, rainfall, traffic volume, soil type, asphalt mix, and maximum temperature. The model applies supervised machine learning techniques specifically, a Decision Tree classifier and Logistic Regression to predict the decline in Pavement Condition Index (PCI) over a 5–30-year horizon without maintenance. Results show consistent classification performance across both algorithms, with soil properties, traffic volume, and maximum temperature emerging as dominant predictors of pavement life. These findings align with recent studies that highlight the reliability of AI approaches for pavement condition modeling and the importance of climate-sensitive adaptation strategies in infrastructure planning. By localizing predictive modeling to Libya’s climatic context, PLPT offers policymakers and transport authorities a practical tool to anticipate deterioration risks, optimize maintenance schedules, and enhance the resilience of road networks under climate variability.
Assessment of Heavy Metal Levels in Various Species of Seaweeds in Misrata, Libya
Eight species of brown (Phaeophyta), red (Rhodophyta), and green (Chlorophyta) seaweed were collected from Misrata on the Libyan coast. The samples were digested using Milestone Start D Microwave. The levels of Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn, and Fe in the samples of the seaweed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The higher levels of metals in seaweeds were Fe (588.1), Zn (164.28), Ni (16.67), Pb (8.136), Cu (4.857), and Cd (0.783) μg g⁻¹ dry weight. Normal levels were found for Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn, and Fe. The results obtained show that the concentration of heavy metals decreased as follows: Cd< Cu< Pb< Ni< Zn < Fe.The results showed that brown seaweed recorded the highest accumulation of metals. Among the studied seaweeds, the highest concentration of metals was detected in Padina pavonica, and this species could be utilized for monitoring coastal waters on the Libyan coast.
Solid Waste Management: Between Legislation and Practical Implementation
If the environment is understood as the natural setting in which human beings and other living organisms live, it simultaneously represents a challenge that humanity must confront. This challenge is embodied in the problem of environmental pollution, which has placed humanity before a real and imminent threat to its food, water, air, health, agriculture, forests, and civilization. Pollution has corrupted, harmed, and endangered every aspect of life. Consequently, it became imperative for the international community to convene conferences, examine this issue thoroughly, and adopt the decisions and measures necessary to preserve the environment and protect human beings and all living organisms. Among the most significant outcomes of these efforts was the establishment of a legislative framework for dealing with solid waste in order to ensure a safe and healthy environment for humanity. One of the main reasons that motivated me to undertake this study is the phenomenon of waste accumulation, which has also drawn the attention of many specialists in the field of environmental studies. This interest increased especially after reviewing numerous scientific studies and accurate ecological statistics that revealed the scale of the damage resulting from the accumulation of waste, as well as the magnitude of the risks it poses to the present generation and future generations alike. This issue deeply alarmed me and led me to believe that we are, indeed, moving rapidly toward serious environmental deterioration. Accordingly, I considered it my duty, first as a citizen living in this country, and second as an academic legal scholar, to contribute, within my area of specialization, to the defense of the environment, particularly against the dangers of pollution. This includes raising public awareness about the seriousness of this phenomenon, emphasizing the need to put an end to such indifference, and analyzing the challenges that hinder the effective implementation of environmental rights and limit their practical realization. The problem of this study lies in the worsening phenomenon of waste accumulation, the lack of serious and effective measures to address it, and the ambiguity and duplication found in the legislative texts relating to environmental protection from pollution in Libya. It is also reflected in the overlap and inconsistency of administrative procedures in terms of jurisdiction and compliance. Accordingly, the central question raised by this study is: To what extent is the claim valid that the existing legislative framework constitutes an obstacle to improving public services? Furthermore, what is the fate of the human right to live in a clean and healthy environment?
Integrated Hydrogeochemical Assessment of Groundwater Quality in Eastern Benghazi, Northeastern Libya
Libya, located in the arid region of North Africa (Figure 1), faces severe water shortages due to low rainfall and high evaporation rates. The Benghazi coastal plain relies predominantly on groundwater supplies, which are mainly replenished by limited and highly variable rainfall. This study investigates the hydrochemical properties, assesses groundwater quality, and evaluates the potential uses of groundwater in the area situated to the east of Benghazi City in northeastern Libya. The chemical analyses were performed, and hydrogeochemical diagrams, such as Piper and Gibbs diagrams, were used to identify the origin, water type, and groundwater characteristics, thereby elucidating the interrelationships among various chemical variables for 17 groundwater samples collected from the study area. However, a bimodal salinity distribution is observed: approximately 50% of groundwater samples exhibit elevated total dissolved solids (TDS > 1000 mg/L), classifying them as saline, while the remaining samples maintain freshwater status (TDS < 1000 mg/L). This bimodal salinity distribution indicates the cumulative effects of seawater intrusion along the coastal margin, evaporative concentration under semi-arid climatic conditions, and intensive groundwater pumping, which together enhance salinization in the western sector of the study area. Pearson correlation analysis showed strong correlations between salinity indices and major ions, except for bicarbonate. The saturation index (SI) indicates that the groundwater is slightly saturated with respect to carbonate minerals and undersaturated with respect to evaporite minerals. Groundwater chemistry and quality are mainly controlled by natural processes, particularly water–rock interactions, evaporation effects, and the mixing or intrusion of seawater. The samples B1 and B2 are unsuitable for irrigation, while the other samples B3 to B17 range from "good to excellent," indicating their suitability for irrigating most crops, particularly in soils with medium to high permeability.
Physicochemical Study of Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba) Fruits from Different Regions of Libya
The fruits of the Sidr tree, also known popularly as Ziziphus jujuba , are sweet-tasting and have many health benefits as they contain many nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, fiber, and others. They are used in traditional medicine to treat many health conditions. Based on this, this study aimed to evaluate the physical and chemical differences and bioactive compounds in Ziziphus jujuba fruits collected from the Brack Alshatti and Jufra regions in southern Libya. The analysis included the morphological characteristics of the fruits (length, diameter, fruit weight, and color), in addition to determining the basic chemical components, namely moisture, ash, protein, fat, fiber, carbohydrates, and vitamin C, using approved standard methods, as well as estimating phenolic compounds and flavonoids and evaluating antioxidant activity. The results showed that Ziziphus jujuba Brack fruits had a higher moisture content (67.53±1.16%) compared to Aljufra fruits (47.12±3.33%). They also had a higher vitamin C content (74.00±4.00 mg/100 g) compared to (56.93±1.00 mg/100 g), and the total phenolic compound content in Ziziphus jujuba Brack fruits increased to (390.26 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g) compared to (324.10 (390.26 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g) in Jufra fruit, which was reflected in an increase in antioxidant activity by (90.27%) compared to (87.94%).In contrast, Al-Jufra fruits region recorded higher ash content (5.33±0.09%) compared to Barak fruits region (4.29±0.08%), and exceeded them in protein content (3.87±0.03%) compared to (1.72±0.40%), in addition to higher fat (6.04±0.21%), fiber (4.08±0.16%), and carbohydrates (33.56%) compared to brack Alshatti region fruits, which recorded (5.47±0.10%) fat, (2.36±0.13%) fiber, and (18.63%) carbohydrates. Mineral analysis showed significant differences in zinc (0.20±0.02 vs. 0.10 mg/kg) and copper (1.15±0.005 vs. 1.67±0.13 mg/kg), while no significant differences were recorded in cadmium (0.054±0.26 and 0.010 mg/kg). The results of the study indicate clear differences in the chemical composition and biologically active compounds of Ziziphus jujuba fruits between the Brack and Jufra regions. These differences reflect the impact of environmental and geographical factors on the nutritional value and biological activity of Ziziphus jujuba fruit in Libya.
Microplastics as Environmental Pollutants: Biological and Health Consequences – A Comprehensive Review
Microplastic pollution is now a lasting environmental problem. It affects the health of ecosystems and the health of humans. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the sources, environmental distribution, exposure pathways, and biological effects of microplastics across aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric systems. Primary microplastics are made on purpose for industry and consumer uses. Secondary microplastics form when big pieces of plastic break down. Both primary and secondary microplastics appear in water, soil, air, food and biological samples. In the water animals and the land animals microplastics often cause trouble eating, slower growth, cell damage from chemicals, inflammation and damage, to tissues. At the cell and molecule level microplastics can kill cells and damage DNA. Microplastics also disturb the system and change how genes work. The ability to adsorb and transport co occurring contaminants, like metals and persistent organic pollutants makes the contaminants more toxic. The human exposure comes mainly from eating and breathing. The ability to hold onto and move contaminants, such, as heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants creates combined and joint biological effects. The human exposure happens mainly through eating or breathing some microplastics and that interpret found microplastics in stool, blood, and placental tissues. The microplastics risks include cell damage, swelling, hormone disruption and buildup of chemicals.
Biomonitoring of Selected Trees Using Air Pollution Tolerance Index and Anticipated Performance Index in Brack Al-Shati, Libya
The evaluation of Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) and Anticipated Performance Index (API) for trees is of paramount importance given the increasing severity of air pollution on the environment. It is worth noting that different plant species react and adapt differently to air pollutants rely on the environmental conditions of their planting site, thus plant species can be used as important bio-monitors for air pollution. Therefore, this study was useful for monitoring air quality and identifying suitable sensitive and tolerant plant species that can be planted to control air pollution or used as bio-monitors, which could form an important mechanism for reducing air pollution in various polluted environments. This study was conducted on Tecoma, Oleander, and Sidr trees in two areas in Brack Al-Shati; namely the university site and Ashkadah area, where the tolerance index of these plants to air pollutants was estimated by analyzing four parameters: the pH of the leaf extract, relative water content, total chlorophyll, and ascorbic acid concentration, in addition to evaluating the anticipated performance index. The study results revealed that the tolerance of the studied trees ranged from moderately tolerant (Immediately Tolerant) to tolerant. The results proved that the Sidr tree was the best tolerant tree to air pollutants in both study sites, while Tecoma trees ranged between moderate and tolerant tolerance in the study area. The API results confirmed that Sidr gave excellent performance, followed by Oleander, then Tecoma. One-Way ANOVA was conducted to evaluate the effect of different treatments on some of the studied biochemical traits, and the correlation results showed that the APTI index exhibited a strong positive correlation (p < 0.01) with both total chlorophyll (0.735) and ascorbic acid (0.989). A weak negative correlation was observed between relative water content and pH with the air pollution tolerance index.
Dynamic Interaction between Wind and Topography during Peak Rainfall over Shahat Area (Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar), Libya: An Applied Study Using Proposed Climatic Index
This study analyzes the interaction between wind and topography and its influence on rainfall in the Shahat area (Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar), northeastern Libya, during the peak rainy season. It develops an applied climatic indicator, the Angular Wind–Rainfall–Topographic Interaction Index (AWRI). The analysis uses meteorological records from the Shahat weather station provided by the Libyan National Center of Meteorology for the climatological period 1981–2010, including rainfall totals, wind speed, and wind direction, alongside topographic slope aspects derived using Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The index integrates rainfall amount, mean wind speed, and the cosine of the deviation angle between wind direction and windward slope orientation, representing the efficiency of orographic uplift. Results show marked interannual variability, with high values when northerly and northwesterly maritime winds align with Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar slopes, enhancing rainfall effectiveness. The findings highlight the importance of incorporating dynamic–topographic factors in interpreting rainfall variability in coastal mountainous environments.
The Effectiveness of Renewable Energy in Achieving Environmental Protection
This research aims to analyze the legal framework governing the use of environmental technology as an effective mechanism for addressing contemporary environmental pollution, given the increasing challenges resulting from rapid industrial and technological development. The study's significance lies in the fact that environmental technology has become a central tool for achieving sustainable development and enhancing environmental compliance through technologies for emissions reduction, waste management, clean energy, and environmental digitalization. The study employs a descriptive-analytical approach, reviewing relevant national legislation and international agreements. It concludes that the effectiveness of employing environmental technology is not solely dependent on legal texts, but also on their integration with effective implementation and oversight mechanisms, investment incentives, and international cooperation in technology transfer and capacity building. The study recommends updating environmental legislation to keep pace with technological advancements and adopting flexible legislative policies that promote innovation, while balancing the requirements of environmental protection with the demands of economic development.
Nesting Ecology and Anthropogenic Threats to Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta) Along the Northern Coast of Libya
The nesting range of sea turtles has noticeably expanded in recent years, leading them into areas heavily influenced by human activities like fishing, maritime traffic, and operations from oil companies. Given that sea turtles exhibit no parental care, the choice of nesting sites becomes critical for their reproductive success. In 2025, researchers conducted a study on the nesting behaviors of loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) across 25kilometer stretch along the Zueitina and Amerir Gabes coastline in northern Libya. The research uncovered that these turtles actively avoided renesting in areas close to the shoreline, suggesting their behavior was shaped by challenges such as rising sea levels. While alternative nesting habitats might be available, human activities like egg harvesting and the use of fishing nets substantially increase mortality rates, exacerbating the decline of turtle populations, particularly on Zueitina beaches, remained unnoticed due to the lack of specific monitoring. This study underscores an urgent call for enhanced protection of nesting sites and more robust conservation efforts to ensure the survival of sea turtle populations.
Seasonal Variations in Length-Weight Relationship and Condition Factor of Atlantic Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) in the Coastal Waters of Tripoli, Libya
This study provides a comprehensive assessment of the length-weight relationship (LWR) and physiological condition of the Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) in Tripoli waters, Libya, based on seasonal sampling from Autumn 2022 to Summer 2023. A total of 120 specimens were analyzed, ranging from 15.0 to 33.0 cm in total length and 52.0 to 337.0 g in total weight. The overall LWR was established as W=0.0671⋅L2.395 (R2=0.877), indicating a significant negative allometric growth pattern (b<3). Analysis by sex revealed that both females (W=0.1400⋅L2.159, R2=0.812) and males (W=0.0453⋅L2.510, R2=0.789) exhibited negative allometry, with males displaying a slightly higher weight gain relative to length. Seasonal analysis revealed highly dynamic growth strategies, shifting from strong negative allometry in Autumn 2022 (b=0.70) to positive allometry in Summer 2023 (b=3.49), with isometric growth observed during the Spring (b=2.77). Fulton’s condition factor (K) peaked in Winter 2023 (1.057±0.28), corresponding with the pre-spawning period, and reached its minimum in Summer 2023 (0.919±0.07). Statistical analysis showed no significant sexual dimorphism in condition (p=0.135), though females generally exhibited higher K values (1.018) than males (0.957). These results indicate that while the populations of this species in the coastal waters of Tripoli follow the general seasonal trends of the Mediterranean, they adopt unique, sex-specific growth strategies. This underscores the need for localized, ecosystem-based fisheries management to ensure the sustainable conservation of this commercially vital species
Assessment of Water Quality of Selected Natural Springs in Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar, Libya Using the Water Quality Index (WQI)
Natural springs are among the most important traditional water resources in the Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar region in eastern Libya, as the local population relies on them for agricultural and domestic uses. Therefore, assessing their water quality is essential to ensure their safety and sustainability. This study aimed to evaluate the quality of water from selected natural springs using the Water Quality Index (WQI) and to compare the results with Libyan and international standard guidelines to determine their suitability for various uses. A total of ten water samples were collected, with three replicates per sample, from springs distributed across several locations within the study area. The main physicochemical parameters were analyzed, including pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness (TH), nitrate (NO₃⁻), chloride (Cl⁻), and sulfate (SO₄²⁻). The Water Quality Index was calculated using the weighted arithmetic method to classify water quality. The results showed that most of the studied parameters were within the permissible limits according to standard guidelines, indicating acceptable water quality in the majority of the springs. However, Ain Al-Ajal spring recorded an elevated nitrate concentration (57.8 mg/L), likely due to agricultural activities and geological influences, which affected its WQI value. The WQI values ranged from 75.91 to 101.2, with most springs classified as having good water quality suitable for domestic and agricultural uses, while Ain Al-Ajal spring was classified as poor water quality. These findings confirm the effectiveness of the Water Quality Index as a reliable tool for evaluating natural water resources and highlight the importance of continuous monitoring and sustainable management to protect these resources from contamination and ensure their safe future use.
Mechanical Wounds on Imported Apples and their Effects on Natural Infection with Rot Fungi and Laboratory Detection of Toxins
Post-harvest diseases are of great importance to fruit after harvesting. Therefore, this research aimed to study the effect of mechanically puncturing imported apples on their degree of contamination with post-harvest rot fungi. The Red Delicious and Gold Delicious apple varieties were used in the study. The fruits were punctured and stored in an incubator and on a laboratory shelf until the onset of symptoms. Isolation results from infected fruits showed infection with the fungi Penicillium expansum causing blue rot, P. citrinum causing green rot, and Rhizopus stolonifer causing soft rot). P. expansum was the most prevalent fungus, accounting for 75% of infections, with the highest infection rate (36.8%) observed in the Red Delicious variety. Furthermore, P. expansum and P. citrinum were found to produce toxins under the influence of ammonia vapor in the culture medium.
Ecological Characterization of Halophytic Vegetation in Sabkha Saban, Libya: Life Forms and Chorological Patterns
This study investigates the floristic composition, life-form spectra, and chorotypes of the vegetation cover in Sabkha Saban and its surrounding environments in Libya. Plant specimens were collected during ten bimonthly field surveys conducted from January to May 2023, covering various microhabitats within the study area. A total of 48 plant species, belonging to 47 genera and 21 families, were identified. The Asteraceae family exhibited the highest species richness (20.8%), followed by Poaceae (14.58%), Brassicaceae (8.33%), Chenopodiaceae (8.33%), and Fabaceae (6.25%).Analysis of life forms revealed a clear dominance of therophytes (29 species; 60.41%), followed by hemicryptophytes (11 species; 22.91%), reflecting the seasonal nature of the saline environment. From a phytogeographical perspective, Mediterranean elements were most prevalent, with 14 species (29.16%) classified as Mediterranean chorotypes. Other significant distributions included Mediterranean-Irano-Turanian (12.5%) and Euro-Siberian-Mediterranean (12.5%) links. Comparative analysis with Floristic and inventory study of Mallaha Wetland Tripoli-Libya. —specifically—revealed 23 shared species and 25 unique records identified in this study. These findings provide critical baseline data for the conservation of halophytic biodiversity in arid and semi-arid saline ecosystems, underscoring the ecological value of Sabkha Saban.
Hydrochemical and Ecological Characteristics of Hypersaline Lakes in Wau El-Namus, Sahara Southern Libya: A Baseline Assessment from 2010 Field Sampling
Wau El-Namus, located in the Fezzan region of southwestern Libya, is a rare volcanic caldera containing inland saline lakes within a hyperarid desert environment. This study presents an environmental assessment of four sampled water bodies—Lake 1, Lake 2, Lake 3, and the Red Lake—based on original field sampling conducted in May 2010. The investigation integrated geomorphological observations with physicochemical, hydrochemical, and biological analyses to characterize this distinctive saline-lake system. The three main lakes differed in morphometry, with maximum depths of 16.6 m in Lake 1, 15.8 m in Lake 2, and 11.4 m in Lake 3. Surface waters of the main lakes were alkaline, with pH values ranging from 8.6 to 8.8 and water temperatures ranging from 23.3 to 23.7°C. Electrical conductivity values ranged from 20.5 to 52.3 mS/cm in the three main lakes and reached 126.0 mS/cm in the Red Lake. Total dissolved solids exceeded 50 g/L and reached 126 g/L in the Red Lake. Hydrochemical analysis showed strong ionic enrichment, with sodium concentrations ranging from 3.82 to 7.90 g/L in the three main lakes and reaching 48.46 g/L in the Red Lake, while chloride ranged from 1.20 to 4.40 g/L in the main lakes and reached 34.47 g/L in the Red Lake. Within Lake 1, marked spatial variation was observed, with pH ranging from 8.3 to 8.9, electrical conductivity from 18.96 to 82.60 mS/cm, chlorophyll-a from 4.31 to 130.24 mg/L, and nitrite from 0.03 to 3.55 mg/L. The lake margins were dominated by Phragmites australis, with associated occurrence of Imperata cylindrica, Tamarix aphylla, and Phoenix dactylifera. Phytoplankton analysis identified 12 taxa, mainly diatoms and cyanobacteria, while zooplankton was dominated by Artemia salina and dipteran larvae. The occurrence of Dunaliella salina was associated with the red pigmentation of the Red Lake. Bird observations included Egretta garzetta, Motacilla flava, and Himantopus himantopus, indicating that the lake system also provides localized ecological habitat within the surrounding desert. These findings show that Wau El-Namus is a hydrochemically and ecologically differentiated hypersaline lake system of considerable scientific importance in the Libyan Sahara. The study provides original field-based data on one of the most distinctive inland saline environments in North Africa and establishes a basis for future limnological, ecological, and conservation-oriented research.
Plant Diversity of Medicinal and Melliferous Plants and the Role of Honey Bees in Promoting Environmental Sustainability in Al-Marsas Area, Northeastern Libya
This study aims to assess the Plant diversity of medicinal and melliferous plants an٥d examine the role of honey bees in sustaining biodiversity in the Al-Marsas area, northeastern Libya, located on the Mediterranean coast between Wadi Al-Qattara and Wadi Bualhamam. Plant samples were collected during the 2023–2024 growing seasons and identified using Libyan and international floristic references. Additionally, field interviews with local beekeepers and surveys80 were conducted to document the relationship between nectar-producing plants, honey bees, and honey production. A total of 56 plant species belonging to 52 genera and 25 families were recorded, with Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, and Chenopodiaceae being the most represented families. Medicinal and melliferous plants were the most abundant and formed the basis of the local environmental and economic activities, with 33 medicinal, 20 melliferous, and 20 forage species Results indicate that local honey production largely depends on seasonal nectar plant, Climate change overgrazing, and low environmental awareness were identified as major threats to both bees and plants. The study concludes that the conservation of honey bees and local plant species is essential for achieving sustainable environmental development in northeastern Libya.
Implementation of Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques to Study the Flash Flood Risk in Tanezzuft Valley, Libya.
The Tanezzuft valley is located in the Southwest of Libya, and due to its fascinating location between Acacus - Tassili scraps, and sub-Saharan and northern regions, it is considered one of the largest and most important valley in the region.The valley is characterized by the extension of its basin from south to north for a distance of approximately 185 km, and many important parts of its drainage basins are located within Algerian territory. On this valley, there are a number of cities and villages including Al- Barakat, Thala, Al-Fuwait, and Ghat, which were exposed to a heavy rain and flash flood in June 2019, resulting in the destruction of many houses, roads, farms, and the displacement of thousands of citizens.This paper discussed the role of geographic information systems (GIS) techniques and tools in understanding the geomorphology of the valley especially in which Ghat is located, the risks of rain and flash flooding in the region, and proposed some technical solutions to mitigate the influence of the flood. The GIS analysis revealed that watersheds (3,4,5) have the main impact on the water surface and flooding in the valley, and all the modern cities are located at the lowest elevation inside the valley. The techniques helped to define proposed dam locations as well as to propose the geographical location of the destructive dams at some wadi streams. The study's findings and the final maps can be used to develop some solutions to reduce flood risks in the study area, such as the establishment of dam plans to reduce torrent flow, as well as the preparation of an urban plan for the area to avoid areas of rainwater flow and flash floods.
First Record of White-throated Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis, Linnaeus, 1758) in Libya
The White-throated Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis) is a widespread resident species across South and Southeast Asia and parts of the Middle East, but it has not previously been documented in Libya. Here, we report the first confirmed record of H. smyrnensis in Libya, based on a single individual observed in the Wadi Annagha Protected Area, Derna region, northeastern Libya, in late January 2025. This observation represents a significant westward extension of the species’ known range in North Africa and contributes to the understanding of avian distribution and vagrancy patterns in the southern Mediterranean.
Assessment of Engineering and Environmental Risks Associated with Solid Medical Waste Management at Sorman Teaching Hospital
This study evaluates the operational efficiency and environmental performance of solid medical waste management at Sorman Teaching Hospital in western Libya, with a focus on engineering-related processes including waste segregation at source, internal collection logistics, transportation pathways, temporary storage conditions, and final disposal practices. The study further quantifies daily and weekly waste generation rates as key indicators for assessing environmental and public health risks and for supporting infrastructure and capacity planning. Conducted during the autumn of 2024, the research adopted a descriptive–analytical engineering approach based on systematic field inspections. Data were collected through a validated structured questionnaire supported by direct quantitative measurements and were statistically analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The results indicate that the hospital generates approximately 1,375kg of solid medical waste per week, comprising both hazardous and non-hazardous fractions, which imposes a considerable environmental load and operational challenge on existing waste management infrastructure. Statistical analysis revealed significant interdepartmental variability in waste generation rates (p < 0.05), with the nephrology department accounting for the highest contribution (approximately 45.71% of total waste), while the ophthalmology department exhibited the lowest generation rate. These findings highlight inefficiencies in current waste flow design and resource allocation, as well as the absence of a standardized, performance-based waste management system.From an engineering and environmental science perspective, the study emphasizes the necessity of implementing an integrated solid medical waste management framework that incorporates optimized process design, improved storage and handling facilities, adequate treatment and disposal capacities, and continuous monitoring through key performance indicators (KPIs). Strengthening technical infrastructure, enhancing workforce training, and ensuring strict compliance with environmental regulations and health standards are recommended to reduce environmental risks and improve the overall sustainability of medical waste management systems. The study was limited to a single public hospital and a specific time period. Accordingly, future research is recommended to expand the scope and duration of the study and to include more detailed performance indicators to enhance the efficiency and sustainability of solid medical waste management, covering both hazardous and non-hazardous waste
Effect of Foliar Methionine Application on the Biochemical Characteristics of Turnip (Brassica rapa L. subsp. rapa) and Red Beet (Beta vulgaris L.)
This study aims to evaluate the effect of foliar application of the amino acid methionine on the biochemical traits of turnip (Brassica rapa L. subsp. rapa) and red beet (Beta vulgaris L.). A field experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design with four methionine concentrations (control, 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5%) and eight replicates. The results showed that the effects of methionine spraying on biochemical traits varied depending on its concentration, with the highest increase in chlorophyll content recorded at 1.5%. Lower concentrations enhanced the soluble sugar content in leaves and roots, whereas higher concentrations caused a reduction. Methionine had a stimulatory effect on soluble protein content in leaves but an inhibitory effect in roots, reflecting a differential physiological response between plant organs. The total free amino acid content exhibited concentration-dependent responses. Proline content decreased in turnip, indicating a role of methionine in improving the physiological status of the plant, while in beet, low concentrations maintained the same proline level as the control, but it slightly increased at higher concentrations. We conclude that methionine contributed to the improvement of certain biochemical traits at lower concentrations, while its effects were mostly negative at higher concentrations.
The Impact of Sewage, Human Activity, Fishing, and Storms on the Coral Reef Ecosystem in Benghazi, Derna, and Tobruk areas, Northeast Libya
Coral reefs along the Libyan coastline, particularly near Benghazi, Derna, and Tobruk, play a vital role in supporting marine biodiversity and contributing to the local economy. However, these ecosystems face significant threats due to a combination of anthropogenic pressures and natural events. Sewage discharge, unregulated human activity, unsustainable fishing practices, and the increasing frequency of catastrophic storms all contribute to the degradation of these critical habitats. Recent studies have revealed a concerning shift in the structure of the reefs, with many coral-dominated areas being replaced by algal reefs. This transition is exacerbated by plastic pollution, which not only physically harms coral structures but also hinders their ability to recover. Furthermore, the effects of climate change, including rising sea temperatures and ocean acidification, are intensifying the vulnerability of these reefs. This paper investigates the extent of these environmental stressors, with a particular focus on the role of pollution, overfishing, and climate change in coral decline. We provide a detailed analysis of the implications of these factors and propose recommendations for mitigating further damage, emphasizing the urgent need for effective conservation strategies to preserve these vital ecosystems.
Impacts of Renewable Energy Sources on Biological Diversity and Conservation: An Overview
Nowadays, renewable energy is regarded as a clean and different kind of energy. This study attempts to demonstrate how renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaic (PV), wind farms, and hydropower generation, impact the biological diversity of terrestrial and aquatic animal habitats. In 55% of previous research on wind farm turbines, bird death rates range from 0.0 to 2.0 fatalities/turbine/year, whereas raptor mortality rates range from 0.0 to 0.1 fatalities/turbine/year in 79.4% of the studies. This is contingent upon the location and method of turbine installation. The most often mentioned threats were migratory birds (migrant goose, crane, lapwing, golden plover), water birds (geese species), grassland birds (common quail, corn crake, lapwing, ringed plover), and raptors (common buzzard, common kestrel, and red kite). Bat mortality rates range from 0.0 to 47.5 fatalities per turbine per year at different wind farms. The study also looks at the deleterious impacts of hydroelectric reservoirs on biodiversity, including freshwater turtles and aquatic and terrestrial species, as well as the negative effects of PV installations on ecosystems and wildlife. However, the loss of habitats and the regular migration paths of the wildlife animals were indicative of these consequences.
Use of Satellite Image Techniques to Determine Distribution and Abundance of the Invasive Bassia indica in Benghazi City, Libya
Bassia indica is one of invasive plants which widespread and distributed wildly in last decades in Libya and other regions of the world. Because of its ability to grow in harsh environments, this plant invades a lot of places in Benghazi city including disturbed areas, saline soils and salt marsh. GIS and satellite remote sensing provide powerful, scalable tools for assessing plant distribution and abundance. Several satellite platforms provide multispectral and hyperspectral data suitable for vegetation analysis. This study assessed the distribution of Bassia indica in Benghazi, Libya, integrating GIS mapping and satellite images techniques. Satellite images analysis revealed uneven spatial distribution, with the Northern district hosting the highest coverage (42.8%), while Bo’aathani had the minimal presence (10.3%, 0.5 km²). Bassia indica coverage declined, inversely correlating with urban development (85% to 95% urban area) in the city during last near years. The growth of this species in Northern district which its soil characterized by high saline content reflect its promising features in phytoremediation and soil reclamation.
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The Effect of Crusher Dust on the Heavy Metal Content of Soil in the Sukna Area, Libya
This study aims to evaluate the impact of crusher dust on the soil content of heavy metals by measuring the concentrations of seven elements: cadmium, nickel, copper, iron, zinc, chromium, and manganese. Three samples of crusher dust and four samples of surrounding soil were collected at distances of ( 2, 4, 6, and 8 km) from the crusher sites. The samples were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS). The results showed that the concentrations of manganese, iron, copper, nickel, and cadmium gradually decreased with increasing distance from the crusher sites (dust source). Additionally, the study found that the concentrations of chromium and zinc in the soil at site B were higher than those in the dust samples, indicating the presence of other sources of heavy metals in the soil. All studied elements were found to be within the permissible limits set by international standards recommended by the World Health Organization.
Water and Soil Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Farwa Island For Mangrove Cultivation Suitability
<a href="This study investigates climatic factors and conducts physicochemical analyses of water and soil samples from Farwa Island (Libya), comparing them with mangrove habitats in the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf to assess their suitability for mangrove cultivation. The proposed afforestation could mitigate the island’s persistent coastal erosion and area loss Climatic data (temperature, humidity, dew point, wind speed, and precipitation) were averaged from 2001 to 2021 for Farwa Island and the control site (Hurghada Island, Red Sea, a known mangrove habitat). Results revealed significant climatic similarities between the two regions . Fieldwork on 15/8/2024 documented Farwa Island’s current state through soil/water sampling and photographic evidence of coastal erosion and vegetation degradation. GIS analysis quantified a critical reduction in the island’s area by 1.57 km² between 1990–2022 Physicochemical comparisons showed strong alignment between Farwa Island’s sandy soil/water properties and those of Avicennia marina (gray mangrove) habitats, particularly in bulk density, sodium/potassium content, pH, and soil electrical conductivity. While Farwa’s water salinity fell within the optimal range for mangroves, notable differences in water conductivity were observed">This study investigates climatic factors and conducts physicochemical analyses of water and soil samples from Farwa Island (Libya), comparing them with mangrove habitats in the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf to assess their suitability for mangrove cultivation. The proposed afforestation could mitigate the island’s persistent coastal erosion and area loss Climatic data (temperature, humidity, dew point, wind speed, and precipitation) were averaged from 2001 to 2021 for Farwa Island and the control site (Hurghada Island, Red Sea, a known mangrove habitat). Results revealed significant climatic similarities between the two regions . Fieldwork on 15/8/2024 documented Farwa Island’s current state through soil/water sampling and photographic evidence of coastal erosion and vegetation degradation. GIS analysis quantified a critical reduction in the island’s area by 1.57 km² between 1990–2022 Physicochemical comparisons showed strong alignment between Farwa Island’s sandy soil/water properties and those of Avicennia marina (gray mangrove) habitats, particularly in bulk density, sodium/potassium content, pH, and soil electrical conductivity. While Farwa’s water salinity fell within the optimal range for mangroves, notable differences in water conductivity were observed
Impact of Derna Flood on Selected Fish Species along Derna Coast, Insights from Diver's Surveys
This study examined the impact of the Derna flood on fish species along the coastline from Ras Elteen to Karsa. A survey was conducted with 35 divers in Derna city to collect data on fish species abundance and condition following the flood. The average age of participants was 31.17 years (± 6.53), with an average of 9 years (± 5.50) of diving experience. Most participants held university degrees (42.85%), and rocky environments were the preferred diving locations (71.42%).Divers reported varying observations regarding species recovery and decline after the flood. Species such as Sarpa salpa, Epinephelus guaza, Mugil cephalus, and Diplodus were observed at specific sites post-flood, with differing rates of decline. Statistical analysis using SPSS 23 revealed significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) in species distribution and health after the flood.The data collected indicate how natural disasters affect marine ecosystems, underlining the importance of ongoing monitoring and conservation measures to minimize impacts and support in the recovery of biodiversity in impacted areas.
Environmental Assessment of Soil and Groundwater and its Relation to Plant Diversity in the Al-Aslaq Area, South of Tobruk, Libya
This study aims to evaluate the environmental characteristics of soils and groundwater in the semi-arid Al-Aslaq region south of Tobruk, Libya, and to analyze their relationship with the vegetation diversity in the area. The results showed that the soils are predominantly alkaline (pH 7.8–8.0) with low to moderate salinity levels (EC 0.34–0.55 dS/m), classifying them as calcareous sandy-loam soils with low fertility due to their limited organic matter content (1%). Groundwater analyses revealed high salinity (EC 5500 µS/cm), exceeding the permissible limits for drinking and irrigation according to World Health Organization (WHO) standards. A total of 50 plant species belonging to 14 families were recorded, including halophytes, nitrogen-fixing species, and medicinal plants, indicating a notable degree of functional ecological diversity under harsh environmental conditions. The findings suggest that soil and water salinity, along with alkalinity, represent the principal environmental factors controlling plant growth in the region. The study recommends improving water resource management and promoting the use of drought- and salt-tolerant plant species in land reclamation and desertification control programs in semi-arid environments.